Everyone loves sugar; whether you like just a dash of sugar in your coffee to balance out the bitterness, or a heaping mound of sugar in your desserts to satisfy your insatiable sweet tooth, sugar is an essential ingredient in our everyday lives, especially when it comes to baking. But do we know just how essential it is, and how it all works? Sugar may just be a simple carbohydrate, but simple is the last thing that should be used to describe it. After discovering all the amazing powers that sugar holds, you won’t look at this so-called “simple carbohydrate” the same again!

First of all, let’s take a look at sugar on the molecular level. Sugar is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and contains a hydroxyl group, which makes the molecule very polar and therefore very soluble. Sugar also easily bonds with other molecules, and in doing so helps to hold on to the moisture of foods (which also makes it a natural preservative). Common table sugar, and most other sugars, is actually formed by combing two simple sugars and forming a disaccharide, which is great at storing energy.

Now let’s look at how this molecule works and interacts during baking. For example, adding sugar to recipes with flour helps to absorb water and prevent gluten development, which changes the texture of the baked good. The sugar forms strong bonds with water molecules so it helps to keep baked goods soft and moist. Additionally, adding a small amount of sugar will result in a denser texture, such as bread or rolls, and a larger amount of sugar will give a light fluffy texture, such as for cake and other pastries. Sugar also causes cakes and quick breads to rise while baking, because when sugar is mixed with fat, eggs and other liquid ingredients it creates air bubbles, which then expand in the oven causing the batter to rise. Sugar can also provide the crunchy textures to the outside of baked goods. This happens when moisture evaporates from the surface of foods while baking, allowing dissolved sugars to re-crystallize and create crunchy crusts.

In ice cream, sugar helps to slow down the freezing process during the churning, which creates the rich and creamy texture we all know and love. In meringues, sugar helps to stabilize the structure. It does this by preventing the egg whites from being over-beaten by slowing down the production of foam, and it protects the foam from collapsing by dissolving in the water bubbles to support them. Sugar can also add a richer, deeper flavor to desserts by caramelizing. When sugar caramelizes, the molecule breaks down into smaller parts and turns a darker color with more complex, richer flavors.

Clearly, sugar is a very powerful little molecule. But not only does it have this impressive skill set, there are many different kinds that each has its own unique identity. We asked a professional baker and food blogger, Amanda Light (from http://PrimandPropah.com), her opinions on a few different types of sugars. Using her advice, let’s take a look at these main types of sugars and what they bring to the table.

White granulated sugar is what we most commonly associate with the word sugar. It is very refined, so it does not contain any of the natural molasses. It is most commonly used in baking, and because of its extra fine crystals it does not clump together, which makes it easy to sprinkle on top of things or dissolve in liquids. Organic sugar, or brown crystalline, is similar to white sugar but it is less refined so it has a light brown color, and it can be used in the same way as white sugar, according to Amanda.

Brown sugar is white sugar that has cane molasses added to it, and comes in either light or dark depending on the amount of molasses added. Brown sugar is better at retaining moisture than white sugar, so it makes baked goods extra moist. “There’s a reason your banana bread is super moist and yummy, it’s that brown sugar and banana!” says Amanda. Unfortunately, brown sugar can harden and clump much easier than white sugar, so it’s a good idea to store it in an airtight container.

Liquid sugars, such as honey and agave, are sugars that have been dissolved in water before being used. They hold even more moisture than white or brown sugar, which results in an extra moist texture. Although Amanda says, “I don’t generally bake with honey or agave as my main sugar because I like the consistency of white and brown sugars more,” liquid sugars are great for recipes that first require the sugar to be dissolved.

We hope these facts and tips about sugar will help you in your next baking adventure, and help you to realize the true power of sugar and why it’s so important!

Sources:

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/bioprop/polysac.html

http://www.safeeggs.com/blog/how-sweet-it-is-the-science-behind-sugar-in-baking/

http://www.finecooking.com/articles/how-sugar-affects-baking.aspx?pg=0

http://www.mybakingaddiction.com/types-of-sugar/

https://www.sugar.org/all-about-sugar/types-of-sugar/

From savory steaks and pastas to sweet pastries and cookies, almost every recipe has one common ingredient: salt. Dating all the way back to the early Roman Empire, salt has played a vital role in our cooking and eating experiences for thousands of years. But what makes this simple, tiny little ionic compound have such a big and powerful impact? Let’s take a look at the science behind this miracle mineral and find out the method behind the saltiness.
First, in order to understand how salt works we need to understand how human taste buds work. Humans can detect five different types of tastes: sweet, salty, umami, bitter and sour. The theory that our tongue has five different sections for each of these flavors is false. Our tongues contain three different types of papillae that each contains taste buds. Each taste bud then contains up to one hundred taste receptor cells, and these taste receptor cells are what send information to the brain about the taste that they are experiencing. There are two different types of these taste cells: receptor cells, which perceive sweet, umami and bitter, and presynaptic cells, which detect salty and sour flavors. So in reality, our tongue is one giant blanket of two different taste receptor cells that combined can detect all of the different flavors.

So what powers does this mystical compound hold? Specifically, salt can enhance the flavors of other foods by simply increasing the perceived saltiness on our tongues, and it can balance other flavors like sweet and sour and override bitter flavors by suppressing the perception of bitterness. Salt can also denature the rigid structure of proteins, making their flavors tastier and more aromatic, which is why salt and meats go so well together. Salts can bring out aromas by helping release aroma molecules from food into the air, which in turn stimulates our olfactory receptors and helps us smell better. Additionally, as we all know, salt can preserve foods by drawing out the interior moisture of the food and allowing the food to dry out faster, therefore preventing bacteria and mold to grow. This is just a few from the long list of skills of salt.

Not only does salt have a lot of different skills, but it also has a lot of different types. From table salt to sea salt to Himalayan salt, each of these has a distinct taste and texture, as well as things such as different sodium and mineral contents.

The most common form of salt is table salt, which is harvested from salt mines and then highly refined and ground to remove any impurities and trace minerals. It is almost pure sodium chloride, about 97%, usually with added iodine as a public health preventative measure against iodine deficiency. Table salt can also clump very easily, so it usually has an anti-clumping agent added to it as well.

Sea salt, although also made of mostly sodium chloride, is harvested by evaporating seawater. Usually, sea salt also contains other minerals like potassium, iron and zinc. Darker sea salts have higher impurities and trace nutrients, and all sea salts are typically less ground and courser than regular table salt, which can provide a more potent flavor burst and a different mouth feel. Unfortunately, due to polluted oceans, sea salt can also sometimes contain trace amounts of heavier metals like lead, although very rarely does this occur.

Himalayan salt, or Himalayan pink salt, is harvested from the Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan, the second largest salt mine in the world. It gets its pink color from small trace amounts of iron oxide, otherwise known as rust. Himalayan salt typically has a slightly smaller sodium chloride concentration, and contains small amounts of calcium, iron, potassium and magnesium. Other than its pink color, however, Himalayan salt is fairly equal to regular salt in regards to taste.

Kosher salt, although initially used for religious purposes, is used today because of its larger flaky texture, which makes it easier for chefs to spread on top of their foods. The main difference between kosher salt and table salt is that kosher salt has bigger flakes, and therefore is less likely to contain anti-clumping agents as well. Despite this, kosher salt is basically the same as table salt but with bigger flakes.

Clearly, salt has a lot more talents and types than meets the eye. So next time you sprinkle some salt on top of your food, think about how powerful those tiny grains really are!

Sources:

http://www.finecooking.com/articles/the-science-of-salt.aspx?pg=0

https://authoritynutrition.com/different-types-of-salt/

Flour is an essential ingredient in lots of recipes, mostly for baked goods. But do we really know how flour works? Time after time we mindlessly add flour to our cookies and cakes, overlooking the true importance of it and just waiting for the moment when we get to lick the spoon clean. The truth is, knowing the science behind flour and how it interacts while baking can give us lots of insight about the foods we’re making, the type of flour we should choose for specific recipes, and helpful tips on how to improve these recipes to get the most delicious results.

The real reason flour is so vital in the baking world is because of the stringy protein that forms when wheat and water mix – otherwise known as gluten. I know nowadays saying the word gluten is almost as bad as shouting, “Fire!” in a movie theater, but gluten is actually your friend when it comes to baking. Gluten plays such an important role in baking for many reasons. First of all, it acts as a binding agent for the dough and holds it together. Also, it traps the gases that are released by yeast during fermentation, which prevents bread from being too dense. Furthermore, gluten is ultimately responsible for the shape and texture of baked goods.

But how exactly does this miracle protein work? Gluten is made up of two proteins, glutenin and gliadin, and when mixed with water these two proteins combine to create strong, elastic gluten strands in the dough. These gluten strands become stronger and more developed the more you mix the dough, which ultimately affects the texture and type of dough that is formed.

Choosing flour with the appropriate amount of gluten content can actually make or break you in the kitchen. Different types of dough require different levels of gluten content. For example, foods such as breads, pizza dough, pasta and other yeast-raised dough have higher gluten content; the higher amount of gluten makes the breads elastic and stretchy. Other baked goods, such as cakes, cookies and other pastries, require less gluten, which keeps them lighter and fluffy. Therefore, as expected, bread flour has a higher protein content than pastry or cake flour.

We asked a professional baker and food blogger, Amanda Light (from http://PrimandPropah.com), her opinions on flour and she gave us some very helpful hints! “All purpose flour is just that, all purpose. You’ll get good results whether you’re baking a cake or whipping up some bread,” says Amanda. “If you are a more experienced baker you can use different types of flour, that generally vary on the amount of protein content they have. Bread flour has the most protein (making it dense and chewy) while pastry and cake flour have the least (making it light and fluffy). More experienced bakers can add protein to their flours with varying results but I use all purpose flour for almost everything in my kitchen and have almost always had delicious results!”

Thanks to Amanda’s tips and some additional research, we put together a list of different types of flours and their uses.

Bread flours, durum semolina and whole-wheat flour have the most protein, about 12-15%. Bread flour is made from hard wheat and forms strong, durable gluten to make the elastic dough necessary for good bread. Whole-wheat flour will provide a more wheat flavor, and is slightly darker than white flour. It is made by milling the whole-wheat berry instead of just parts of it. These flours are therefore ideal for yeast-raised dough and pizzas.

All-purpose flour, as its name suggests, can be used for pretty much anything since it is a mix of hard and soft wheat. It falls in the middle in regards to protein content, 9-12%, and thus can be used for most home-baked goods. It also comes in bleached and unbleached versions. The difference between these two is that bleached flour has been treated with an agent to whiten it and has its nutrients restored, while unbleached flour remains untouched and keeps all its nutrients on its own. In regards to baking results, however, these two are equal and will both work the same.

Pastry flour is made from soft wheat and contains 8-9% proteins. This results in weaker gluten and a softer product and will result in a crumbly, fluffy texture. Thus, it is mainly used for different types of pastries. Cake flour is very similar to pastry flour; it is also made from soft wheat, but falls just below pastry flour with 7-8% protein content. The lower protein content ensures that cakes turn out fluffy and tender.

So next time you aimlessly throw a bag of flour into your shopping cart and bolt out of the baking aisle, take a minute to think about what kind of flour you’ll be needing. Your baked goods will thank you (and taste better!).

Sources:

http://www.finecooking.com/articles/what-is-gluten-food-science.aspx

http://bigbaketheory.com/2012/01/20/all-about-gluten/

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/16/guide-to-baking-flours_n_1388420.html

Coffee has become such an essential part of our everyday life; it wakes us up in the morning, keeps us awake during those drowsy afternoons, and allows college students to stay up all night studying during finals week. Whether it’s a fancy latte made from a hipster barista or a crappy cup of Joe that we force down anyway, coffee is an extremely valuable commodity. Even myself, I admit to sipping on my third cup of coffee for the day as I write this (for inspiration, of course). Although we idolize this essential beverage, most of us do not know much about the long process it takes for coffee to get from the ground to our cups. Taking a deeper look at the growing process, it’s clear that a lot of hard work, and probably many cups of coffee, go into the first step of making this decadent, liquid pick me up.

Although we are highly dependent on coffee in North America, coffee trees depend on warm climates, and therefore only grow in the region between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. This area, also known as the Bean Belt, includes countries in Central and South America, the Caribbean, and Africa, which is a pretty far distance for those little beans to travel! The coffee tree is a type of tropical evergreen, and is typically grown in mountainous areas with lots of rainfall. They can grow up to 30 feet high, although they are usually kept smaller to make harvesting easier as this step is generally done by hand. Coffee trees are constantly growing and producing, and one tiny tree can produce enough beans for up to 1.5 pounds of coffee.

There are two main types of coffee trees, Arabica and Robusta. Arabica (Coffea arabica) is descended from the original Ethiopian coffee trees, and makes up about 70% of the world’s coffee production. Robusta (Coffea canephora) was not discovered until more than one hundred years after Arabica was discovered. Therefore, Robusta only makes up the remaining 30%. It is mainly grown in Brazil and Southeast Asia on flat lands as opposed to the high altitudes usually required for Arabica trees. Robusta trees are smaller shrub–like trees, and their beans are smaller and rounder than Arabica beans. They also have about 50% more caffeine than Arabica, but also produce a more bitter taste. While Arabica is believed to be the superior blend with a smoother taste, Robusta is actually used in some blends of Italian espresso to give it a bolder flavor.

So, how do these trees turn into your morning cup of coffee? At first, the trees produce very fragrant white blossoms that then mature into coffee cherries, which actually look like little red cherries. These cherries usually take 7 to 9 months to ripen for the Arabica tree, and about 11 months for the Robusta tree. The coffee cherries are then harvested, usually by hand, but Robusta cherries are easier to harvest and can therefore be collected by machines as well. Inside these coffee cherries are coffee seeds, which are the whole coffee beans we are used to seeing before they are roasted. When they are first removed from the cherries, however, they are green instead of the rich brown we associate with coffee beans. The coffee seeds are then roasted, grinded, and brewed to produce the steaming hot cup of coffee we all know and love.

Worldwide, we consume about 2.25 billion cups of coffee daily. Despite this enormous amount of coffee present in our daily lives, most people are completely unaware of the whole process coffee has to go through to get into our cups. So next time you’re enjoying a hot cup of Joe, think about and appreciate exactly how much work goes into making that coffee. It might just make it taste even better.

Sources:

http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/edible-innovations/coffee.htm

http://coffeeandhealth.org/all-about-coffee/where-coffee-grows

There are a lot of different factors that go into making a perfect, great tasting cup of coffee. The temperature, the type of coffee, the coarseness or fineness of the grinds, the amount of water all of these aspects can influence the taste of your coffee. Perhaps the most important factor, however, is the brewing method.

Brewing is so imperative to coffee flavor because the amount of time coffee is brewed and the amount of water used greatly impact the resulting flavor and bitterness of the coffee. There are three different compounds that can be extracted from coffee grounds, and the amount of time the coffee is in contact with the water changes the types of compounds that will be extracted. First to be extracted are the acidic, fruity flavored compounds, then the earthy, caramel like compounds, followed by the undesirable bitter compounds. Shorter brew times will ensure that the bitter compounds are not extracted from the grounds and will not give an unpleasant taste to the coffee. In addition, the amount of water used is also important because if there is not enough water this can lead to more extraction of these bitter compounds, but too much water can leave the coffee weak and dilute.

Clearly, coffee flavor is very dependent upon brewing method, and there are many different types of methods: boiling, steeping, filtering and pressurized. These slight variations in brewing can lead to lots of unique flavors that are distinct to the method.

The boiling technique is perhaps the simplest method, but not as commonly used because it is harder to get consistent results. This method entails steeping the coffee grinds in boiling water, similar to the way tea is made. The most popular form of boiled coffee is Turkish coffee, which is made with a small device called an ibrik or cezve. This is a special type of pot, which is wide and rounded at the bottom, and narrower at the top. This allows the grinds to remain at the bottom while the coffee is poured out at the top. The trick to Turkish coffee is to grind the beans into a very fine powder, much finer than espresso grinds. The coffee powder is then placed into the ibrik with water and usually sugar as well, then boiled until it begins to froth over. The ibrik is then quickly removed from the heat and allowed to settle before it is placed back on the heat and allowed to boil and froth one to two more times and then stirred. After the boiling is complete, the coffee is then poured out of the ibrik, while the powder remains in the device, and voila! You might as well be sitting in Istanbul.

From Istanbul to Paris, the next method, steeping, originated in France. Commonly known as the French Press, this method uses a tall cylinder with a mesh filter attached to a plunger. The first French Press appeared in the early 1900s and used cheesecloth or a metal screen as a filter, then went through several modifications over time to become the French Press we now use today. To brew using a French Press, coffee grounds and hot water are added to the press, then brewed for a few minutes, depending on the size of the pot. Once brewing is done, the plunger is pushed down to keep the coffee grinds at the bottom while the coffee is filtered through and poured out from the top. For a stronger, bitterer coffee taste, the coffee grounds can be kept in the press for a longer amount of time, which can be desirable for some.

Filtering is the most common method used in American households. The drip coffee method involves placing the coffee grinds in a filter, and allowing the hot water to drip over the coffee and then be filtered through into the pot. Another type of filtering is percolating, which is where the coffee grinds are placed at the top of the pot and the water below is boiled upwards and drips through the grinds. Similarly, the pressure method also incorporates dripping water over the coffee, but with a few important tweaks. The pressure method is used to make espresso, and it requires very hot water, about 200°F, to be forced through the very fine coffee grinds with lots of pressure, around 8 to 9 atm. Although this method has a shorter brew time, it results in a much stronger flavor.

Sources:

http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/oct/23/a-chemistry-teachers-guide-to-the-perfect-cup-of-coffee

http://coffeegeek.com/guides/turkishcoffee

http://coffee-brewing-methods.com/coffee-brewing-methods/